(1) In The Human Body, Each Cell Contains 23 Pairs Of Chromosomes, One

(1) In the human body, each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, one of each pair inherited through the egg from the mother, and the other inherited through the sperm of the father. Of these chromosomes, those that determine sex are X and Y. Females have XX and males have XY. In addition to the information on sex, 'the X chromosomes carry determinants for a number of other features of the body including the levels of factor VIII and factor IX.'1 If the genetic information determining the factor VIII and IX level is defective, haemophilia results. When this happens, the protein factors needed for normal blood clotting are effected. In males, the single X chromosome that is effected cannot compensate for the lack, and hence will show the defect. In females, however, only one of the two chromosomes will be abnormal. (unless she is unlucky enough to inherit haemophilia from both sides of the family, which is rare.)2 The other chromosome is likely to be normal and she can therefore compensate for this defect. There are two types of haemophilia, haemophilia A and B. Haemophilia A is a hereditary disorder in which bleeding is due to deficiency of the coagulation factor VIII (VIII:C)3. In most of the cases, this coagulant protein is reduced but in a rare amount of cases, this protein is present by immunoassay but defective.4 Haemophilia A is the most common severe bleeding disorder and approximately 1 in 10,000 males is effected. The most common types of bleeding are into the joints and muscles. Haemophilia is severe if the factor VIII:C levels are less that 1 %, they are moderate if the levels are 1-5% and they are mild if they levels become 5+%.5 (2) Those with mild haemophilia bleed only in response to major trauma or surg ery. As for the patients with severe haemophilia, they can bleed in response to relatively mild trauma and will bleed spontaneously. In haemophiliacs, the levels of the factor VIII:C are reduced. If the plasma from a haemophiliac person mixes with that of a normal person, the Partial thromboplastin time (PTT) should become normal. Failure of the PTT to become normal is automatically diagnostic of the presence of a factor VIII inhibitor. The standard treatment of the haemophiliacs is primarily the infusion of factor VIII concentrates, now heat-treated to reduce the chances of transmission of AIDS.6 In the case of minor bleeding, the factor VIII:C levels should only be raised to 25% with one infusion. For moderate bleeding, 'it is adequate to raise the level initially to 50% and maintain the level at greater that 25% with repeated infusion for 2-3 days. When major surgery is to be performed, one raises the factor VIII:C level to 100% and then maintains the factor level at greater than 50% continuously for 10-14 days.'7 Haemophilia B, the other type of haemophilia, is a result of the deficiency of the coagulation factor IX - also known as Christmas disease. This sex-linked disease is caused by the reduced amount of the factor IX. Unlike haemophilia A, the percentage of it's occupance due to an abnormally functioning molecule is larger. The factor IX deficiency is 1/7 as common as factor VIII deficiency and it is managed with factor VIII concentrates. Unlike factor VIII concentrates which have a half-life of 12 hours, the half-life of factor IX concentrates is 18 hours. In addition, factor IX (3) concentrates contain a number of other proteins, including activated coagulating factors that contribute to a risk of thrombosis . Therefore, more care is needed in haemophilia B to decide on how much concentration should be used. The prognosis of the haemophiliac patients has been transformed by the availability of factor VIII and factor IX replacement. The limiting factors that result include disability from recurrent joint bleeding and viral infections such as hepatitis B from recurrent transfusion.8 Since most haemophiliacs are male and only their mother can pass to them the deficient gene, a very important issue for the families of haemophiliacs now is identifying which females are carriers. One way to determine this is to estimate the amount of factor VIII and IX present in the woman. However, while a low level confirms the

Culture Identity Essays - Anthropology, Science Fiction Literature

Culture Identity Essays - Anthropology, Science Fiction Literature Culture Identity Many people go to different countries. Some of them go for school, some others go for business and some others go for living. However, some people adapt well to a new environment and others retain their original culture identity. I think adapting to a new culture or environment depends on three main reasons: background culture, where they stay, and their personality. The first reason is the background culture of people. There are many people who don't like their own culture or environment. They try to run away or change their culture. Therefore, it would be easier for those people to adapt to a new culture or environment. For example, many Russian people especially businessmen don't like the business system in their country. Their system is Communism, which means that the government controls all the production and distribution of goods. Therefore, when many Russian people go to a new environment or new culture, the United States for instance, they find it better than their country because it has a different system. The United States' system is Capitalism, which means that any person can be a private ownership. Therefore, it may be easier for those people to adapt a new culture or a new environment. For example, in The Plane Reservation, Massud Farzan states that he has stayed in the United States for a long time before he visited his family in Iran. When he arrived in Iran, he found a lot of changes. It can be understood that the writer didn't like his country and his culture before he left to the United States. When he lived in the United States, he found the right place for him that made it very easy for him to adapt to the American culture. Therefore, the background culture of people has a lot of effects on adapting to a new culture. The second reason might be where people stay the most. Some people think that when a person lives in a new culture, he or she can easily adapt to the new culture. However, they forget that with whom they stay the most in the new culture can make a difference. If a person stays mostly with his or her own people, it may be very hard for that person to adapt to the new culture because he or she would not learn the new culture by staying with people from that culture. On the other hand, he or she can easily retain to their original culture identity because they would not know much about the new culture. For example, there are many Hispanic people living in the United States. Some of them don't even know how to speak English. It is because they stay mostly with people from the same culture, speak the same language and do not communicate much with American people. That all can make it very hard for some people to adapt to a new culture. Therefore, the people and the community that a person stays with have a lot of effects on adapting to a new culture. The third reason is the personality of a person and where he or she has learned it. It might be sometimes very hard to adapt to a new culture whose people act and behave differently. For example, from the first week I've arrived in the United States coming from the United Arab Emirates, I lived in a school dormitory. However, I couldn't stay longer than a month in the dormitory. It was not because of the small room or one kitchen in each floor, but it was because of the bathrooms. Whenever I wanted to take a shower, I saw men naked, and they walk around in the bathroom without any underwear on. It was very surprising for me because I've come from a country where people consider walking naked in bathroom is a very bad habit. I could not stand or adapt to living in the dormitory anymore. Therefore, I moved to a three-bedroom apartment with two roommates from the same culture so that we could understand each other easily. Even though I've been in the United States for about five years, I still don't want to see naked men in the bathrooms. Therefore,

Nosocomial infections Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nosocomial infections - Assignment Example This report will look at various issues related to HAIs. Nosocomial infections have been a problem for many countries of the world. The challenge occurs as majority of countries are unable to put mechanisms to monitor HAIs. However, a number of countries have systems that could help in surveillance of these infections, but they lack a standard way of establishing infections. These challenges make it difficult to quantify information on these types of infections. However, various studies carried out have been able to establish that there are millions of patients that are affected HAIs in different parts of the world (World Health Organization (WHO) 1). There are worrying statistics concerning these infections in different parts of the world. As noted in the World Health Organization report, HAIs varies between 3.5 and 12 percent in those countries that are perceived as developed (WHO 2). In Europe, the average rate of infections is noted as 7.1 percents. In the region, over four million cases are reported in a very year. On the other hand, the infections have been a serious problem in United States. As it is, about four percent of admitted patients are said to have an infection linked to the hospital care (ODPHP 1). The infections lead to huge spending in the healthcare sector and also cause death. The infection or have huge consequences to individuals involved. In addition, the effects have been found more common in countries with limited resources as compared to those with more resources (WHO 2). There are common types of these infections that occur in the care environment. The most common are listed as urinary tract infections, surgical site infections, and bloodstream infections (ODPHP 1). However, these infections have been reducing in the recent past due to various initiatives that have been taking place in the healthcare sector. On the other hand, there are various factors that put the patients at risk of acquiring HAI.

The Nature of Theory Why we need to be able to think in theoretical Assignment

The Nature of Theory Why we need to be able to think in theoretical terms - Assignment Example Most of the time, people think within the box suggesting the idea that they tend to understand matters simply based upon the utilization of their sight and their hearing sense. It could be noticed though that simply thinking within this box limits the capability of people to see only what they can and not that of those that they could perceive. It has been mentioned through time by psychologists and philosophers that a person who is able to think outside the box and see the whole context as well as the elemental factors contributing to the occurrence of an event or the emergence of a particular matter, is someone who could possibly be able to give birth to the options of the different procedures of development that the whole population of the human society could actually be thankful for. The question is, how could theoretical thinking be handled well One is that of the application of strategic thinking. It is innate among humans to be fascinated by the different things that they particularly see around them. It could not be denied then that through the years, this particular fascination within the different elements that could be seen in the human environment actually developed into the many discoveries and inventions that humans produced. Through passing civilization of humans, it could be observed that the people were never contented with what they already have or what they have already accomplished. This is especially true in terms of science and technology as well as in arts and literature. It is indeed undeniable that people recreate the things that are already existent within their own society. The fact that they have already been able to see what they could do regarding a certain type of field, they intend to even do better the net time that they deal with the same invention. Yes, humans never get tired of reinventing everything there is in the environment. Why is this so Human intelligence has always been noted by philosophers as the primary factor that makes the human creation different from that of the other God-made creations. The humans' ability to innovate their own achievements to even better results for the present generation to see, has particularly noted them to be those who are capable of reinventing themselves to be able to evolve from generations to generations. It is through this that people become more aware of the world around them, they cared more than ever with the political agendas, the social issues as well as other informations that concern their interests. True, the changing situation in the society and the demand towards progress requires that human intelligence be perfected in a way that it particularly caters to the needs of the entire humanity. The human brain's ability to store and restructure informations that were accepted by it through the years of an individual's life is particularly a proof that the application of humans' intelligence could still be perfected as generations are still to come along. On Personal Evaluation of Learning Process As a person, having a consumer style knowledge individual has paid much benefit for the author of this paper. The willingness to comprehend with the informations that are being presented to me accordingly actually allows me to

Sustainable Supply Chain Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Sustainable Supply Chain Management - Essay Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that effective and efficient association puts a business in a better position to maximize on its profits; a business needs to put in place effective methods of managing its chains so that it reduces any wastage that may result and at the same time, being friendly to the environment. Currently, the concept of environmental management has become a thorny issue across the globe, this has translated to heavy fines and penalties to those businesses and other entities found violating environmental management practices. For this reason, a business ought to rely on effective use and management of its vehicles so that they do not release most of them to places where effective planning can see the use of only few of them. This is the idea that has led t the establishment of ideas into sustainable chain management. At the same time, it is important to realize the critical need for suppliers in the business and the importance of esta blishing more links. The work of the production and sales department should be to look for better opportunities for cheaper inputs while trying to sustain those suppliers that the business already has. In doing this, the business is able to remain in operation just in case there is a change in the supply environment, prompting the exit of some important suppliers in the business. the need to ensure sustainability and consistency in terms of product delivery into the market has been the ultimate aim of most businesses.

Effect of the Weather on Agriculture

Effect of the Weather on Agriculture Executive Summary Agricultural activities are often affected by the weather. Weather is unpredictable as it changes from time to time. As the agricultural activities affected, the crops or the outcome of the agricultural activities would be affected as well and this caused the income of the farmers to be affected or causing the investors to lose money. Therefore, weather derivative is needed to protect the farmers and investors. So, this research is all about modelling and pricing of weather derivatives where the weather is based on the daily average temperature in Malaysia. In this research, there are two main objectives which include the modelling of temperature and pricing of weather derivatives. To complete this research project, there are 10 stages to be gone through. The details about the stages would be discussed in the methodology of this research. The model used to model the movement of daily average temperature in this research would be the stochastic fractional Brownian motion. This model is chosen because based on the past researches, this model fits the data well and successfully modelled the dynamics of daily average temperature. From this research, the daily temperature is expected to be modelled and described by the stated model well. Besides that, the pricing of weather derivatives will be encountered as well. Through this research, it provides a lot of advantages. For example, it provides a better idea in the process of modelling the temperature and the pricing method of weather derivatives. The outcome from this research can be used as a reference for future researchers that do research in this field. Details of Research Project (a) Research Background 1. Problem statement Agricultural activities are one of the main activities carried out by people around the world. It is one of the main sources of income for some of the countries like Africa, India and China. Even in this modern technological era, many of the agricultural activities still depending on the weather. Weather is the daily conditions of a particular place. For example, humidity, precipitation, the daily average temperature and visibility are all under the weather. Since weather is a thing thats beyond human control and agricultural activities are highly depending on weather, therefore, agricultural businesses are often referred to as a high risk business. In recent years, the weather insurance and weather derivatives are becoming more renowned as it reduces or hedge the risks faced by all farmers and investors that caused by weather. Jewson (2005) presented a few reasons why is the weather derivatives important and in Jewson (2005) and Cao and Wei (2004), a few weather hedging techniques were shown. The traditional agricultural insurance is the crop insurance. There are a lot of disadvantages of the traditional crop insurance. Some of the disadvantages include inefficiency due to poor contract structured, lack of information and high transaction costs involved. This caused those farmers could not afford for the insurance and hence the weather derivatives are highly needed as weather derivatives normally had a lower price than the weather insurance. Thus, weather derivatives play a very important role in helping the farmers and investors. The first weather related derivative deal was done by Aquila Energy in 1997 for Consolidated Ediso n Company, where a dual-commodity hedge was structured. Since the agricultural derivatives are getting more important, more financial researchers are doing their research on the pricing of weather based derivatives. Norton (2010) stated that the weather derivative is a way to share the risk for farmers in developing countries. Malaysia is lucky enough to be located in the equatorial region. Hence, the weather in Malaysia is hot and humid throughout the year. Therefore, in Malaysia, the crops are only affected by the daily average temperature and the amount of rainfall. Of course, there are catastrophes that happen in Malaysia too, like flash flooding, acid rain or drought. These catastrophes in Malaysia caused the damage to all the crops. But, the main problem that could affect the crops in Malaysia would be the amount of rainfall, the daily temperature or humidity. Hence, in Malaysia, to structure a weather derivative, it is easier as compared to other four season countries because the weather factors that taken into account are lesser. Moreover, there are lack of people doing research in this field, thus, this research is quite important as to solve the agricultural problems. 2. Research questions One of the problems faced by researchers in doing research about the pricing of weather derivatives is often the pricing model or the pricing technique that is used. Besides pricing technique, the model that used to describe the dynamic or the movement of the weather factors like amount of rainfall or daily average temperature in the research of weather derivatives is one of the problems faced by researchers as well. Hence, in this research, the focus would be on the modelling of the daily average temperature in Malaysia and the pricing of the weather derivatives. So, the questions to be answered in this research will be how well the model is, in describing the movement of daily average temperature and how to price the weather derivatives. 3. Literature review There are actually a lot of researchers had done their research about the weather insurance or derivatives. Some of the models used by past researchers include temperature modelling, Black-Scholes model, Time Series models, Brownian model, Ornstein-Uhlenbeck model, Esscher transformation and more. Taib and Benth (2012) had done a research on the pricing of the weather insurance by using three different approaches which include burn analysis approach, index modelling and temperature modelling. The weather index is first calculated and then the price of the insurance contract is calculated based on the weather index. The weather index, which is based on the Cooling-Degree Day (CDD) is calculated by using the formulae of After calculating the , the price of the insurance contract can then be now determined by using the formulae P(t, ) = exp(−r( − t))E[)|Ft ] where the expected value of the claim size is found. The exp(−r( − t) is used to find the present value by discounting at time as Indicates the end of the period where insurance starts paying. The formulae of P(t, ) is a standard method to price the weather related insurance or derivatives. For burning analysis approach, it is firstly introduced by Jewson and Brix (2005) as a classic method in pricing weather derivatives. The payoff of the burning analysis approach is based on the empirical distribution of the sample data collected. While the mean value of observations of the sample data is used to calculate the price of the contract. The next method introduced by Jewson and Brix (2005) is the index modelling approach, and Taib and Benth(2012) modify a little bit of the model where the past claims are fitted into a distribution and the expected value of the distribution is used in pricing the contracts. Lastly, Taib and Benth (2012) proposed a new model where the changes of the daily average temperature are modelled using the autoregressive, a time series model. Besides Taib and Benth (2012), Campbell and Diebold (2003) also uses time series model to model and forecast the daily average temperature in certain cities of America for the purpose of weather derivatives. While Chang, Lin Shen (2009) constructed a theoretical model to price the weather derivatives and this is the extended version of the model of Cao and Wei (2004). In the research paper of Chang, Lin Shen (2009), the estimation value of future Heating-Degree Day(HDD) and Cooling-Degree Day (CDD) is predicted by using Mote-Carlo simulation and they successfully utilize the time series temperature model in Campbell and Diabold (2003). Mills (2009) also uses time series model to model the current temperature trend of Central England. In the research of Mills (2009), it is suggested that three other alternative ways could be used to model the temperature trend, which is the parametric stochastic trend model, the non-parametric local trend fit, and a low-pass filter. These 3 alternat ive techniques had been discussed in Mills (2003) and Pollock (2007). Other than time series models, other models were used by other researchers in pricing of weather derivatives. For example, Lee and Oren (2009) suggested a model of equilibrium pricing of the weather derivatives for various commodities. This model is built where the risk averse utility function is optimized by the agents, including the weather derivatives that have been issued. There are two types of agent. The first type is the farmers where they obtain the profit with the exposure to weather risks while the second type of agent is those financial investors where they hope to diversify the financial portfolio. Therefore, later in 2010 and 2011, Lee and Oren with Hà ¤rdle and Osipenko simulate the realistic market conditions to get the equilibrium price for weather derivatives. This equilibrium pricing method of Lee and Oren is actually based on the research of Cao and Wei (1999) where Cao and Wei generalize the model of Lucas (1978) and include the daily temperature as a fundamental variable. Since Black-Scholes Model is a popular method to price the European options, BotoÃ…Å ¸ and CiumaÃ…Å ¸ (2012) uses the Black-Scholes model to apply in weather derivatives. The aim of their research is to see how the Black-Scholes model can be applied in weather type derivative and to analyze whether it is a suitable model to price for weather derivatives. However, based on their findings of the research, they concluded that the Black-Scholes model is not a suitable model to price for the weather derivatives as the weather market developed very quickly and it is inconsistent. Due to the inconsistencies, the model is not preferable to be used for pricing of weather derivatives contract unless it is a part of the portfolio. Benth and Ã…  altytÄ-à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Benth (2005) uses a stochastic model to model the variations of temperature in their research paper. They used the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck with the driven by Levy process and having seasonal mean and volatility. They find that this model is quite a success to fit the Norwegian temperature data. Besides that, Svec and Stevenson (2006) also use a stochastic model to model and forecast the temperature. Svec and Stevenson (2006) uses Fourier transformation and stochastic Brownian motion (SBM).They proposed a more generalized stochastic Brownian motion to model the temperature, that is, the stochastic fractional Brownian motion (FBM). The model proposed take account the low-frequency variability of weather where the SBM does not. The difference of the SBM and FBM is that the FBM included a continuous-time Gaussian process depending on the Hurst parameter. This research paper concluded that the Monte-Carlo simulation overly forecast while the autoregressive moving average (ARMA) time-series model under forecast the monthly accumulated Heating-degree Day (HDD) and Cooling-degree Day (CDD). They also concluded that the models they use in the research have better estimates than that of the Campbell and Diebold (2003) model. (b) Objective of Research There are two main objectives in this research, that is:- (i) To model the daily temperature based on the analysis of daily average temperature in Malaysia by using stochastic fractional Brownian Motion. (ii) Pricing of the weather derivative. (c) Methodology 1. Flow Chart of Research Activities 2. Gantt Chart of Research Activities 3. Milestones and Dates The flow chart, Gantt chart and milestones and date clearly show that the research activities of this research project. To complete this research project, there are 10 stages. The first stage is looking for a research supervisor so that this research is under supervision. Then, setting up of research title will be the next stage. After setting up the research title, studying and reading related journals needed as to get a rough idea of what is the research needed to be done and what actually the research is all about. The fourth stage will be fixing the model to be used in the research. After reading and studying of relevant journals, the model to be used could be determined. In this research, the model to be used in modelling the daily average temperature is the FBM. The FBM that will be used is as follows: This model was chosen because out of a few models studied in the past research papers, it is one of the best model that fits the movement of temperature. In this FBM, it consists of several components. That is, the mean reversion process, the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process and the fractional Brownian process which is a continuous-time Gaussian process. Besides that, the model used also included some seasonal and trend factors. With the combination of this few process and factors, it makes the stochastic FBM more efficient in describing the movement of temperature. As the fixing of the model is done, preparation of research proposal would be the next stage and it is now pending for approval by supervisor. After the proposal of research is done and it is approved, collection of data begun and then analysis works will be started. Analyses of data enable the temperature to be modelled by the model fixed in the earlier stage. In this research, the model to be used is the Stochastic Brownian Motion. Hence, the eighth stage is the modelling of daily average temperature using Stochastic Brownian Motion. After the modelling, pricing of weather derivatives can be start doing and finally, after the pricing is done, the research project is finished up and completed. (d) Expected results 1. New Knowledge Throughout this research, there are actually a lot of new knowledge could be obtained. As this research is all about modelling of temperature and pricing of weather derivatives hence, by doing this research, it provides a better idea on which model is better in fitting or describing the movements of daily temperature as a lot of other models are studied. Besides that, the steps to model the movements of daily temperatures also a new knowledge. It improves the knowledge about stochastic. Since this research is using stochastic fractional Brownian Motion to model the changes of daily temperature, through this research, the suitability of the stochastic model to describe the changes of daily temperature will be reviewed. Besides that, through this research, the application and the usage of the stochastic fractional Brownian Motion is known. Moreover, it will provide a better understanding of the method to calculate the price of the weather derivatives. 2. Research publications This research will be published as a thesis in semester II of 2014/2015. 3. Impact on Society, Economy and Nation Since in Malaysia, it is lack of researchers doing the research about the pricing weather derivatives, so, this research of modelling and pricing of weather derivatives gives some small impact on the economy. One of the impact is that it improves a little bit of the economic conditions of the agricultural field. As mentioned previously in this research, agricultural activities are affected a lot by the weather and agriculture activities are one of the largest activities in Malaysia. Hence, by doing this research, the forecasting of temperature can be done based on the modelling of temperature. With the forecasting of temperature, it can help the farmers to be aware of their crops and come out with a better strategy to handle and prepare for the worst. Of course, the forecast results might not be accurate, but, with the guides provided from the modelling and forecasting, it helps to reduce the risk of losing the money, be it the farmers or the investors. This helps to prevent the farm ers from stop doing agriculture activities. So, by doing this research, it indirectly affected a little bit on the economic condition of the agricultural field. References Benth, F., Ã…  altytÄ-à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Benth, J. (2005). Stochastic Modelling of Temperature Variations with a View Towards Weather Derivatives. Applied Mathematical Finance, 53-85. BotoÃ…Å ¸, H., CiumaÃ…Å ¸, C. (2012). The use of the Black-Scholes Model in the Field of Weather Derivatives.Procedia Economics and Finance,611-616. Cao, M. and Wei, J. (1999). Pricing weather derivative: an equilibrium approach. Working paper. Cao, M., Li, A. and Wei, J., (2004). Precipitation modeling and contract valuation: a frontier in weather derivatives. The Journal of Alternative Investments 7: 93- 99. Campbell, S.D. and Diebold, F.X., (2003). Weather forecasting for weather derivatives. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 100: 6-16. Chang, C., Lin, J., Shen, W. (2009). Pricing Weather Derivatives using a Predicting Power Time Series Process*.Asia-Pacific Journal of Financial Studies,863- 890. Hà ¤rdle, W. K. and Osipenko, M. (2011). Pricing Chinese Rain: A Multisite Multi-period Equilibrium Pricing Model for Rainfall Derivatives. SFB 649 Discussion Paper 2011-055. Jewson, S. and Brix, A. 2005. Weather Derivative Valuation: The Meteorological, Statistical, Financial and Mathematical Foundations. Cambridge University Press. Lee, Y. and Oren, S., (2009). An equilibrium pricing model for weather derivatives in a multi-commodity setting. Energy Economics, 31 (5): 702-713. Lee, Y. and Oren, S., (2010). A multi-period equilibrium pricing model of weather derivatives. Energy Systems 1: 3-30. Lucas, R. E. (1978). Asset prices in an exchange economy, Econometrica 46, pp. 1429-1445. Mills, T. C. (2003). Modelling Trends and Cycles in Economic Time Series. Palgrave Macmillan. Mills, T. C. (2009). Modelling Current Temperature Trends. Journal of Data Science 7, 89-97. Norton, M., Osgood, D., Turvey, C. (2010). Weather Index Insurance and the Pricing of Spatial Basis Risk. Retrieved from: http://ageconsearch.umn.edu /bitstream/61734/2/Norton%20Osgood%20Turvey.Weather%20Index%20Ins urance%20and%20the%20Pricing%20of%20Spatial%20Basis%20Risk%20_ AAEA2010_.pdf Pollock, D. S. G. (2007). Statistical signal extraction and filtering: A partial survey. In Handbook on Computational Econometrics (Forthcoming)2. Elsevier. Svec, J., Stevenson, M. (2006). Modelling and forecasting temperature based weather derivatives.Global Finance Journal,185-204. Taib, C.M.I.C. and Benth, F.E. (2012). Pricing of temperature index insurance. Review of Development Finance 2, pp.22-31.

Dark Overtones And Their Contrasts In My Antonia :: essays research papers

Dark Overtones, and Their Contrasts in My Antonia   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In My Antonia by Willa Cather, there are many dark overtones that pervade the novel. It is through the use of symbolism and contrast these overtones are made real. The prairie is the predominant setting of the novel. It may be shaped, and it conforms to the desires of those working it. The prairie ¹s loneliness, shown by the wide open spaces, is a brilliant way of revealing internal conflict by using a setting. Also, it brings out the characters true meaning. Cather shows through the character of Lena Lengard that society ¹s next generation would not be as good, or quite as noble as that of Cather ¹s childhood. The primary inscription on the first page states that the best days are the first to flee. Cather contrasts these ideas with Antonia ¹s personality, which is always bright. This contributes to the dreariness of the novel.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the novel the prairie is a metaphor for internal conflict. Cather brilliantly demonstrates the prairie as a representation for internal conflict being portrayed by a setting (Kelley, Sean). It symbolizes loneliness and depression. When Jim, one of the main characters, was young, the prairie was uncultivated and there were not as many settlers; it was a lonely place. Being isolated from society with little or no human contact could drive anyone insane. Despair, bad luck, greed, and self-absorbtion make one lose hope also, but it is mostly the lack, or the underuse of, imagination (Kelley, Sean). The prairie was a desolate strip of land that continued as far as could be seen. In the beginning of the novel, Jim Burden states about the land:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There seemed to be nothing to see, no fences, no creek or trees, no hills or fields. I   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  had the  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  feeling that the world was left behind, that we had gone over the edge of   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  it.... If we never arrived anywhere, it did not matter. Between that earth, and that   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  sky, I felt erased, blotted out. (3 - 4) It seems that Jim tries to express that the prairie is forlorn, and deprived of life, making one aware of being alone. Because Jim has left behind all that is familiar, and started over his life, he has a clean slate, and that is what the prairie is. E. K. Brown, once wrote,  ³The impersonal vastness of the land is the freedom it represents.

Foil Characters in “A Doll’s House” Essay

Henrik Ibsen creates characters in A Doll’s House who change throughout the play. Ibsen’s use of foil characters helps the reader understand each individual character better. Some of the characters in the play are perceived as opposites but in fact share several similarities. Krogstad and Torvald, Christine and Nora, and Krogstad/Christine’s relationship and Torvald/Nora’s relationship are all foils to each other. Foil characters are mirror images of each other; they have similarities as well as differences. Nils Krogstad and Torvald Helmer are foils to each other. They both have children and are lawyers, even though Krogstad lost his license because he did a forgery. Krogstad did something immoral but so did Torvald; Torvald helped Nora’s father when he had done a bad thing. Torvald and Krogstad were childhood friends and now they work together at the bank. Even though they have the same professions as each other, Torvald’s position at the bank is much higher than Krogstad’s. Everyone hates Krogstad because he did an illegal act; on the other hand, everyone loves Torvald. The idea that Krogstad is the villain of the play is reinforced by the reactions that Nora displays whenever Krogstad is around. The reader eventually understands that Krogstad is a victim to circumstances; he committed forgery to help his children, not to help himself. Krogstad is hated by others for the crime he committed to help his children, yet Torvald is loved even though he committed a dishonest act to serve himself. Torvald helped Nora’s father in order to win favor with Nora and attain her as his wife. Krogstad no longer has a wife because she, Christine, left him for money. Christine Linde and Nora Helmer are greatly dissimilar but also share some comparisons. Very much like Krogstad and Torvald, Nora and Christine were childhood friends. Before their meeting in Act 1, these two women had not seen each other in nearly ten years. Christine and Nora are nearly opposites of each other; Nora has children, money, and a husband, Christine is a poor widow with no offspring. Christine is an independent woman who has been out in the world and has held multiple jobs. Nora is seen as a child who does not have knowledge of how the world works because she is trapped in a  Ã¢â‚¬Å"dollhouse†. Christine supports this idea when she calls Nora a child and says, â€Å"For you (Nora) know so little of the burdens and troubles of life.†(Act 1) When the reader learns what Nora did for Torvald, it shows that Nora is more intelligent than she seems which is a characteristic that Christine also possesses. In order for Nora to pay back the loan she took, Nora did repair work for extra money. Nora and Christine both had a sick parent who needed their help, which caused them to make a tough decision and they each chose the most important person to them. The two couples in A Doll’s House, coincidentally, are foils to each other. Society sees Nora and Torvald Helmer as a perfectly happy couple. On the other hand, Krogstad and Christine’s relationship is looked down upon because Christine seemingly left him for money. Christine elected to leave her husband, Krogstad, so she could make more money to help her brothers and her sick mother. Nora chose to help her sick husband instead of her ill father during his dying days. The Helmer’s relationship looks stronger because Nora chose her husband over her father but in fact, her decision shows how much Nora is under Torvald’s control. Christine and Krogstad truly have the better relationship because they have adult conversations and work their problems out. These two couples are fundamentally opposites of each other except for the fact that they both become separated at some point. Christine and Krogstad truly love each other because they have both been out in the real world and want to be together. The Helmer’s do not have true love because Nora has never been out of her â€Å"dollhouse† to experience the world for herself. Nora and Torvald’s relationship is more similar to father/daughter rather than husband/wife. Torvald loves Nora as more of a daughter and cares more about what others think of him rather than what she thinks. â€Å"Torvald: From now on, forget happiness. Now it’s just about saving the remains, the wreckage, the appearance.† (Act 3). Torvald is extremely selfish in his relationship with Nora; Krogstad is not selfish at all in his relationship with Christine. Christine and Krogstad are able to solve their issues together as adults. The main characters in this play have foil characters who are there to support them and help the reader understand the story. Certain characters seem to be opposites of each other while also having similarities. Krogstad and Torvald have similar jobs and families, but are also quite dissimilar. Christine and Nora were childhood friends but grew up in different worlds. The relationship between Christine and Krogstad and the Helmers’ relationship differs because Krogstad and Christine truly love each other and the Helmers do not. Even though these characters do have similarities to each other, they are almost exact opposites; they are mirror images of each other.

Applications of Artificial Intelligence to Game Design

Applications of Artificial Intelligence to Game Design Abstract Game development is still in its infancy. But recently there has been a steady growth and somewhat of a revolution in styles in the field of computer and video games. Artificial Intelligence applications are being implemented in these games to produce the illusionary effect of intelligence augmentation in order to give the player a good game play experience.   Game AI is used to create exciting playing strategies which keep the players focused and interested in the game. Players are provided exciting opponents, more intelligent creatures that inhabit the world of their games, which exhibit interesting behavior. The main purpose is that boredom of repetition is avoided.   In this paper we will survey the applications of AI in game design. We will describe the role of AI applications in different genres of games such as action, adventure, role playing, and strategy games. Finally, this paper will show how AI in gaming covers a wide area of AI technologies including path finding, ne ural networks, finite state machines, rule systems, human behavioral modeling and many more. Introduction In the last couple decade there is a great evolution in the computer game industry. When two dimensional games were saturating the market, the introduction of 3D-technology really made the concept of a game world entered to the mainstream (Jonathan, P.1). A major advance in the early part of the next century has included player interactivity and artificial intelligence in game design.   A games story line no longer consists of only one primary character. It must consist of many, all playing an important role in the conflict resolution of their virtual world. This puts a heavy demand on the artificial intelligence required to operate non-player characters. Artificial Intelligence techniques are used to produce the illusion of intelligence in the behavior of non player characters in computer and video games. Creatures must no longer be written so as to react based on a single player, and the realness of their behavior and uniqueness of their tactics will be a more important feature t han it has been in the past (Jonathan, P.1 ). Pathfinding is another common use for AI, widely seen in real-time strategy games. Pathfinding is, as its name applies, the method for determining how to get a non-player characters from one point on a map to another, taking into consideration the terrain, and obstacles.The increased sophistication in the field of computer gaming audience has now shown a bright way to an era in which game developers, who earlier struggled in order to produce game which large amount of demographic can play, are now positioned to work with new, advanced artificial intelligence applications. Artificial intelligence in games is usually used for creating players opponents. The objective of intelligence amplification is rescuing the player from the boredom of repetition and letting him focus just on the interesting aspects of the game. The player gives high-level strategic orders, the computer-controlled units take care of detail. At the same time, the full de tail and dynamics of the game is maintained with the computer control of detail, rather than lost through abstraction. Artificial Intelligence   applications in games design is lately getting better by implementing the incredible complexity of advanced AI engines which has   been developed by the efforts and research of programming groups. There are various techniques used in AI-engines in games designs such as finite state machines, Minimax Trees and Alpha-Beta Pruning, fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, neural networking path finding, rule systems, human behavioral modeling, sample code and many more.   AI techniques will include features like real-time interrogation of suspects, dynamic movement, and richness of behavior in game design which increase the interaction between creatures and their environment, no longer separated from the consequence of their own actions. Combination of generative and reactive planning algorithms will generate the path for creating customized and novel behavior of the characters which will change each time the game is played so that the character behavior is not l imited in ability which will provide the interest in the player. There are different genus of computer and video games in the market and we can see the role of Artificial intelligence applications in these games. Action Games Action games involve the human player controlling a character in a virtual environment, usually running around and using deadly force to save the world from the forces of evil or conquering an alien monsters or mythical creatures. In pure action games, AI is used to control the enemies. Action games like First person shooter type games usually implement the layered structure of artificial intelligence system, layers located at the bottom handle basic task like determining the optimal path to the target and the higher levels take care of tactical reasoning and selecting the behavior which an AI agent should assume in accordance with its present strategy (Janusz, P. 2). Providing realism in graphics has been the key point of competition for these games; where AI has played a major role as a point of comparison. Recent games have extended the genre so that the human player may be part of a team, including either human or AI partners. In all cases, it is the moment-to-moment reaction of the AI to the human that is most important so that the AI must be tactically savvy with little emphasis on strategy (John E, P.11 ).Latest trend is to use schedule based finite state machines (FSMs) to determine the behavior of the players adversaries(Russell, P. 1 ) Adventure Games Adventure games, and similar kind of interactive fiction, move further from action games, since they do not give importance to armed combat but accentuate more on story, plot and puzzle solving. In these games, players must solve puzzles and interact with other characters, as they progress through an unfolding adventure that is determined in part by their actions. AI can be used to create realistic supporting goal-driven characters that the player must interact with appropriately to further their progress in the game (John E, P.11 ). The majority of these games has fixed scripts and uses many tricks to force the human player through essentially linear stories. However, a few games, such as Blade Runner, have incorporated some autonomy and dynamic scripting into their characters and story line (Castle, P.87 ).Two interesting applications of AI to the adventure game category are the creation of more realistic and engaging non Player Characters and maintaining consistency in dynamic sto rylines (Chris, P. 2 ). Role Playing Games In role-playing games, a player can play different types of human characters, such as a combatant, a conjurer or a thief. The player does various kind of activities like collecting and selling items, fighting with monsters, so that they can expands the capabilities and power of their character like strength, magic or quickness, all in an extended virtual world. The Role playing game format also offers similar kind of challenges to the AI developer as the adventure game with some extra impediment due to the amount of freedom assigned to the player. To maintain a story line consistent for these kind of games becomes a biggest challenge and higher level of sophistication is required in these types of role playing games .Here AI is implemented to take control over enemies similar to action games, partners who travel and adventure with the players and also supporting characters like traveling companion, villagers etc . The massively multiplayer games provide an additional opportunity to use AI to expand and enhance the player to player social interactions (John E, P.11 ).These days major AI research areas on these types of games is to provide human interaction, social intelligence and natural language interfaces to these support characters (Brooks, P. ) (Laird, P. 15).Support characters must provide human-like responses, including realistic move ment (Hayes, P. 195), personality, emotions, natural language understanding and natural language generation. In order to do all this, a large range of integrated AI techniques capabilities are required. Strategy Games In strategy games, the human controls various kind of entities for example military elements like tanks, guns, war machines in order to conduct a battle from a   gods eye view against one or more opponents. Strategy games include reenactments of different types of battles: historical (Close Combat), alternative realities (Command and Conquer), fictional future (Starcraft), and mythical (Warcraft, Myth). The human is faced with problems of resource allocation, scheduling production, and organizing defenses and attacks (Davis, P. 24). Strategy games on the market today are an even mix between mythical, fantasy and science fiction campaigns; and recreations of historical battles. There are two distinct classes of game in this category which are turn based strategy (TBS) games involve each player taking their turn to move units, order production, mount attacks and so on and real time strategy (RTS) games which take place in real-time with players moving units, ordering production etc. in parallel (Chris, P. 2 ). AI is used in two roles: to control the detailed behavior of individual units that the human commands, and as a strategic opponent that must play the same type of game against the human (John E, P. 1). AI in strategy games needs to be applied both at the level of strategic opponents and at the level of individual units. AI at the strategic level involves the creation of computer opponents capable of mounting ordered, cohesive, well planned and innovative campaigns against the human player. This is very chall enging as players quickly identify any rigid strategies and learn to exploit them. At the unit level AI is required in order to allow a players units to carry out the players orders as accurately as possible. Challenges at unit level include accurate path finding and allowing units a degree of autonomy in order to be able to behave sensibly without the players direct control (John E, P. 11). Neural network used to choose the best strategy in a RTS-type game. Based on situation analysis, the network decides how greatly to concentrate on development, arms production, repairs after battles etc. All the parameters required by the game will be provided by the neural network on its output (Janusz, P. 3). Simulation / God Games Another sub-category origin by the strategy game is the simulation/ God game. These cast the player in the role of a protective deity .These games give the player god-like control over a simulated world. The human can modify the environment and, to some extent, its inhabitants. The entertainment comes from observing the effects of his or her actions on individuals, society, and the world. SimCity is the classic example of a simulation, or god game (John E, P. 2). The main factor distinguishing God games from strategy games is in the manner in which the player can take action in the environment. The player creates individual characters that have significant autonomy, with their own drives, goals, and strategies for satisfying those goals, but where God (the human player) can come in and stir things up both by managing the individual characters and their environment. The player has the ability to manipulate the environment – for example to raise or flatten mountains to make the land more hospitable, or to unleash the fury of a hurricane or earthquake – and units are controlled less directly than in strategy games(Laird, P. 15 ). Neural networks are used in this type of games to teach the creature behaviors. Neural networks are used for motor controller, threat assessment, attacking on enemies and for anticipation that is predicting players next move .This AI technique help to develop Human like AI (Russell, P. 12). Team Sports Team sports games have the human play a combination of coach and player in popular sports, such as football, basketball, soccer, baseball, and hockey (Whatley, P. 991). AI is used in two roles that are similar to the roles in strategy games, the first being unit level control of all the individual players. Usually the human controls one key player, like the quarterback, while the computer controls all the other members of the team. A second role is as the strategic opponent, which in this case is the opposing coach (Laird, P. 15). One unique aspect of team sport games is that they also have a role for a commentator, who gives the play by play, and color commentary of the game (Frank, P. 77). In a team sports game the strategic opponent might select a play or strategy for the entire team.   That strategy defines a role and/or approximate path for each player involved in the play.  Ã‚  Ã‚   Game programmers discovered that the A* search algorithm is a powerful and efficient way to calculate these paths in the sport games (John E, P. 2). Individual Sports/Racing Games For individual competitive sports, such as driving, flying, skiing, and snowboarding, the computer provides a simulation of the sport from a first or third person perspective (Laird, P. 15).The human player controls a participant in the game who competes against other human or computer players (Laird, P. 15). The computer player is more like an enemy in an action game than a strategic opponent or unit from a strategy game because the game is usually a tactical, real time competition. Individual sports can also require commentators (Janusz, P.4). Opponents for racing games are some of the most pure applications of artificial intelligence in games. The AI must travel over a course, controlling a vehicle (which could be a car, a boat, a plane, or even a snowboard). The AI for racing opponents almost invariably follows a recorded trace of the behavior of a human player. It is as if there is a line on the course that tells the AI where to go, what speed to use, and possibly any special ma neuvers that should be performed (John E, P.1). Conclusion As per the researchers perspective, in the present era of Internet and network games, Artificial Intelligence for interactive computer games is an emerging application area. Artificial intelligence techniques such as finite state machines, path finding, neural networks etc are applied in different genres of games in order to provide an environment for continual steady advancement and series of increasingly difficult challenges for the players to keep them interested. New advances in AI are opening a door to new game genres and even new game paradigms (Stern, P. 77)

Nonprofit Organization Board and Dirеctors’ Liability Analysis

Nonprofit Organization Board and DirÐ µctors’ Liability Analysis Nonprofit Organization Board and DirÐ µctors’ Liability Analysis Introduction Accountability and rÐ µsponsibility for any nonprofit organization ultimatÐ µly liÐ µs on its board of dirÐ µctors. Although thÐ µ board may dÐ µlÐ µgatÐ µ managÐ µmÐ µnt authority to a paid staff mÐ µmbÐ µr, known as thÐ µ Ð µxÐ µcutivÐ µ dirÐ µctor, thÐ µ board can nÐ µvÐ µr bÐ µ rÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd of its lÐ µgal and fiduciary rÐ µsponsibilitiÐ µs (Block and Pryor, 2001). GovÐ µrning board mÐ µmbÐ µrs rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µnt thÐ µ public intÐ µrÐ µst and havÐ µ a burdÐ µn of rÐ µsponsibility to usÐ µ and prÐ µsÐ µrvÐ µ thÐ µ organization's assÐ µts. Board mÐ µmbÐ µrs arÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µrally not compÐ µnsatÐ µd for thÐ µir board sÐ µrvicÐ µ, and thÐ µy must balancÐ µ thÐ µir board obligations with pÐ µrsonal dÐ µmands of work, family rÐ µsponsibilitiÐ µs, and othÐ µr community activitiÐ µs. This commitmÐ µnt to community sÐ µrvicÐ µ is tiÐ µd to a long history of voluntary action, with roots that prÐ µcÐ µdÐ µ thÐ µ founding of Canada. BÐ µcausÐ µ of thÐ µ board's lÐ µgal rÐ µsponsibilitiÐ µs and thÐ µ daily involvÐ µmÐ µnt of thÐ µ Ð µxÐ µcutivÐ µ dirÐ µctor, thÐ µrÐ µ is oftÐ µn confusion bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ rolÐ µs, rÐ µsponsibilitiÐ µs, turf, and Ð µxpÐ µctations for pÐ µrformancÐ µ. ThÐ µ board and Ð µxÐ µcutivÐ µ dirÐ µctor must clÐ µarly undÐ µrstand thÐ µir mutual Ð µxpÐ µctations if thÐ µy arÐ µ to dÐ µvÐ µlop a hÐ µalthy govÐ µrning body. This papÐ µr critically Ð µvaluatÐ µs thÐ µ liability placÐ µd upon board and dirÐ µctors of thÐ µ nonprofit organizations, cÐ µntÐ µring on thÐ µ practical nÐ µÃ µd for holding dirÐ µctors accountablÐ µ for thÐ µir acts and Ð µxamining thÐ µ modÐ µrn lÐ µgal structurÐ µ govÐ µrning thÐ µ dirÐ µctors accountability. Board and DirÐ µctors Liability Though nonprofit boards and dirÐ µctors arÐ µ infrÐ µquÐ µntly suÐ µd, thÐ µ risk of liability is nÐ µvÐ µrthÐ µlÐ µss a lÐ µgitimatÐ µ concÐ µrn for voluntÐ µÃ µr board mÐ µmbÐ µrs. Financial lossÐ µs associatÐ µd with a lawsuit can bÐ µ dÐ µvastating to an organization and its board mÐ µmbÐ µrs. ThÐ µ quality and mannÐ µr in which boards makÐ µ dÐ µcisions or fail to makÐ µ dÐ µcisions can rÐ µsult in a lÐ µgal challÐ µngÐ µ that tÐ µsts whÐ µthÐ µr thÐ µy havÐ µ mÐ µt or failÐ µd in thÐ µir rÐ µsponsibilitiÐ µs as stÐ µwards of public intÐ µrÐ µst (Clark Ð µt al., 2000). Board mÐ µmbÐ µrs and prospÐ µctivÐ µ mÐ µmbÐ µrs arÐ µ oftÐ µn comfortÐ µd by thÐ µ knowlÐ µdgÐ µ that thÐ µ nonprofit organization has purchasÐ µd a dirÐ µctor's and officÐ µrs' (DO) liability insurancÐ µ policy. ConcÐ µrns about lawsuits havÐ µ causÐ µd a rising dÐ µmand for this typÐ µ of insurancÐ µ, and consÐ µquÐ µntly, prÐ µmium costs vary widÐ µly. A factor that affÐ µcts thÐ µ cost of DO insurancÐ µ is thÐ µ naturÐ µ of thÐ µ organization's work, whÐ µthÐ µr it is, for Ð µxamplÐ µ, a dirÐ µct sÐ µrvicÐ µ hÐ µalth carÐ µ agÐ µncy or an organization that promotÐ µs thÐ µ arts. FÐ µaturÐ µs and Ð µxclusions may also diffÐ µr grÐ µatly from onÐ µ policy to anothÐ µr and affÐ µct thÐ µ pricÐ µ and valuÐ µ of thÐ µ policy. IndÐ µmnification rÐ µfÐ µrs to thÐ µ organization Ð µnsuring that it will pay thÐ µ rÐ µasonablÐ µ costs associatÐ µd with liability suits, such as judgmÐ µnts and sÐ µttlÐ µmÐ µnts against its board mÐ µmbÐ µrs (Kurtz, 2003). This practicÐ µ is somÐ µtimÐ µs compÐ µllÐ µd by statÐ µ law. In othÐ µr situations it may bÐ µ an optional practicÐ µ of thÐ µ board. In Ð µithÐ µr Ð µvÐ µnt, thÐ µ organization's bylaws outlinÐ µ thÐ µ Ð µxtÐ µnt of indÐ µmnification. IndÐ µmnification cannot, howÐ µvÐ µr, bÐ µ Ð µxÐ µrcisÐ µd whÐ µn thÐ µ organization brings a suit against its own board mÐ µmbÐ µrs. In practicÐ µ, indÐ µmnification is a form of sÐ µlf-insurancÐ µ and assumÐ µs that thÐ µ organization has thÐ µ funds to pay lÐ µgal costs. GivÐ µn thÐ µ rÐ µsourcÐ µs of somÐ µ nonprofit organizations, this assumption may not bÐ µ valid (HÐ µrman and Van Til, 1999). In addition to indÐ µmnification and DO liability insurancÐ µ covÐ µragÐ µ, a board of dirÐ µctors can purchasÐ µ various liability insurancÐ µ policiÐ µs, including, but not limitÐ µd to, thÐ µ following spÐ µcialty policiÐ µs: gÐ µnÐ µral liability, Ð µmployÐ µÃ µs' liability, malpracticÐ µ, automobilÐ µ, and fiduciary. To Ð µncouragÐ µ board and othÐ µr voluntary sÐ µrvicÐ µ in community organizations, all Canadian provincÐ µs havÐ µ passÐ µd voluntÐ µÃ µr protÐ µction laws. ThÐ µ Ð µxtÐ µnt of protÐ µction variÐ µs among thÐ µ tÐ µrritoriÐ µs, and this form of lÐ µgislation has largÐ µly bÐ µÃ µn untÐ µstÐ µd in thÐ µ courts. VoluntÐ µÃ µr protÐ µction laws and thÐ µ variÐ µtiÐ µs of liability insurancÐ µ prÐ µmiums arÐ µ not thÐ µ only ways boards can protÐ µct thÐ µmsÐ µlvÐ µs. ThÐ µ most Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ form of protÐ µction is limiting risk by adhÐ µring to Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ govÐ µrnancÐ µ practicÐ µs Kurtz, 2003). ThÐ µrÐ µ arÐ µ thrÐ µÃ µ standards of conduct that should guidÐ µ thÐ µ board mÐ µmbÐ µr, as follows: Duty of carÐ µ: imposÐ µs an obligation that all board mÐ µmbÐ µrs dischargÐ µ thÐ µir dutiÐ µs with thÐ µ carÐ µ that an ordinarily prudÐ µnt pÐ µrson would Ð µxÐ µrcisÐ µ undÐ µr similar circumstancÐ µs. This includÐ µs bÐ µing diligÐ µnt, attÐ µnding mÐ µÃ µtings, and bÐ µcoming acquaintÐ µd with issuÐ µs bÐ µforÐ µ rÐ µaching a dÐ µcision. Duty of loyalty: rÐ µquirÐ µs that Ð µach board mÐ µmbÐ µr act primarily in thÐ µ bÐ µst intÐ µrÐ µst of thÐ µ organization and not in his or hÐ µr own pÐ µrsonal bÐ µst intÐ µrÐ µst or in thÐ µ intÐ µrÐ µst of individuals at thÐ µ Ð µxpÐ µnsÐ µ of thÐ µ organization. Duty of obÐ µdiÐ µncÐ µ: imposÐ µs an obligation that board mÐ µmbÐ µrs will act in conformity with all laws in addition to acting in accordancÐ µ with thÐ µ organization's mission (HÐ µrman and Van Til, 1999). For thÐ µ voluntary mÐ µmbÐ µrs of boards of dirÐ µctors, acting prudÐ µntly, lawfully, and in thÐ µ bÐ µst intÐ µrÐ µsts of thÐ µ organization can, in part, bÐ µ achiÐ µvÐ µd by adhÐ µring to thÐ µ following six rÐ µsponsiblÐ µ board practicÐ µs: BÐ µcoming an activÐ µ board mÐ µmbÐ µr. Board mÐ µmbÐ µrs who arÐ µ familiar with thÐ µ organization's mission and purposÐ µ arÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µrally ablÐ µ to makÐ µ bÐ µttÐ µr dÐ µcisions for thÐ µ organization. MÐ µmbÐ µrs may wish to rÐ µviÐ µw thÐ µ mission annually to sÐ µrvÐ µ as a rÐ µmindÐ µr that thÐ µ board usÐ µs thÐ µ mission statÐ µmÐ µnt as its guidÐ µ in dÐ µcisionmaking. AttÐ µnding all mÐ µÃ µtings. BÐ µing absÐ µnt from mÐ µÃ µtings will not nÐ µcÐ µssarily Ð µxcusÐ µ a board mÐ µmbÐ µr from rÐ µsponsibilitiÐ µs for dÐ µcisions rÐ µachÐ µd by thosÐ µ in attÐ µndancÐ µ. In fact, a mÐ µmbÐ µr's absÐ µncÐ µ from mÐ µÃ µtings incrÐ µasÐ µs potÐ µntial risks for thÐ µ Ð µntirÐ µ board bÐ µcausÐ µ it is making dÐ µcisions without thÐ µ bÐ µnÐ µfit of thÐ µ viÐ µws of all of its mÐ µmbÐ µrs. Insisting on having sound financial managÐ µmÐ µnt tools and control systÐ µms. Board mÐ µmbÐ µrs nÐ µÃ µd to lÐ µarn how to rÐ µad and usÐ µ financial statÐ µmÐ µnts and audit rÐ µports to undÐ µrstand and monitor thÐ µ organization's fiscal hÐ µalth. ThÐ µy also nÐ µÃ µd to undÐ µrstand that thÐ µir dÐ µcisions havÐ µ a financial impact on thÐ µ organization. SpÐ µaking up. MÐ µmbÐ µrs should not rÐ µmain silÐ µnt whÐ µn thÐ µy disagrÐ µÃ µ with a dÐ µcision or an opinion Ð µxprÐ µssÐ µd by othÐ µrs. Additionally, board mÐ µmbÐ µrs should ask quÐ µstions whÐ µn thÐ µ organization's goals and objÐ µctivÐ µs arÐ µ not bÐ µing mÐ µt. IdÐ µntifying conflicts of intÐ µrÐ µst. Board mÐ µmbÐ µrs nÐ µÃ µd to avoid participating in discussions or dÐ µcision-making whÐ µn thÐ µy havÐ µ conflicts of intÐ µrÐ µst. ЕvÐ µn thÐ µ pÐ µrcÐ µption of a conflict of intÐ µrÐ µst must bÐ µ avoidÐ µd, if possiblÐ µ. If thÐ µy arÐ µ facÐ µd with an actual conflict or Ð µvÐ µn thÐ µ pÐ µrcÐ µption of onÐ µ, board mÐ µmbÐ µrs must inform thÐ µ othÐ µr dirÐ µctors of thÐ µ situation and Ð µxcusÐ µ thÐ µmsÐ µlvÐ µs from participation in rÐ µlatÐ µd arÐ µas of dÐ µcision-making or transactions. Staffing. In addition to its having pÐ µrsonnÐ µl policy guidÐ µlinÐ µs for thÐ µ Ð µxÐ µcutivÐ µ dirÐ µctor, thÐ µ board must bÐ µ cÐ µrtain that thÐ µsÐ µ pÐ µrsonnÐ µl policiÐ µs arÐ µ adÐ µquatÐ µ and updatÐ µd to rÐ µflÐ µct all applicablÐ µ mandatÐ µs of law (Clark Ð µt al., 2000). ThÐ µ Fiduciary DutiÐ µs and ThÐ µir ЕnforcÐ µmÐ µnt ThÐ µ fiduciary dutiÐ µs of nonprofit dirÐ µctors stÐ µm from at lÐ µast two sourcÐ µsstatÐ µ corporatÐ µ statutÐ µs spÐ µcifically applicablÐ µ to nonprofit corporations and fÐ µdÐ µral incomÐ µ tax law. Еach of thÐ µsÐ µ sourcÐ µs dÐ µfinÐ µs thÐ µ substantivÐ µ fiduciary standards applicablÐ µ to nonprofits and Ð µstablishÐ µs a mÐ µchanism by which to Ð µnforcÐ µ thosÐ µ standards. UndÐ µr statÐ µ statutory and common law, dirÐ µctors of businÐ µss corporations must satisfy two fiduciary dutiÐ µsthÐ µ duty of carÐ µ and thÐ µ duty of loyalty. ThÐ µsÐ µ fiduciary standards rÐ µcognizÐ µ that dirÐ µctors cannot bÐ µ subjÐ µctÐ µd to liability for Ð µvÐ µry businÐ µss dÐ µcision. As such, thÐ µ duty of carÐ µ typically rÐ µquirÐ µs dirÐ µctors to dischargÐ µ thÐ µir dutiÐ µs with thÐ µ carÐ µ an ordinarily prudÐ µnt pÐ µrson in a likÐ µ position would Ð µxÐ µrcisÐ µ undÐ µr similar circumstancÐ µs (Qtd in HÐ µrman and Van Til, 1999, p. 67). To satisfy thÐ µ duty of loyalty, thÐ µ corporatÐ µ dirÐ µctor must act in good faith and in a mannÐ µr hÐ µ rÐ µasonably bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µs to bÐ µ in thÐ µ bÐ µst intÐ µrÐ µsts of thÐ µ corporation (Qtd in HÐ µrman and Van Til, 1999, p. 74). In satisfying thÐ µsÐ µ dutiÐ µs, corporatÐ µ dirÐ µctors may rÐ µly on thÐ µ opinions of assistants, such as othÐ µr dirÐ µct ors, corporatÐ µ officÐ µrs, and lÐ µgal counsÐ µl. ThÐ µ dirÐ µctors nÐ µÃ µd not individually invÐ µstigatÐ µ Ð µvÐ µry dÐ µcision to act (or to rÐ µfrain from acting) in ordÐ µr to insulatÐ µ thÐ µmsÐ µlvÐ µs from liability to thÐ µ corporation or its sharÐ µholdÐ µrs. ThÐ µ Standards as AppliÐ µd to Nonprofit DirÐ µctors Courts havÐ µ hÐ µld thÐ µ dirÐ µctors of nonprofit corporations to a variÐ µty of fiduciary standards. SomÐ µ courts havÐ µ indicatÐ µd that nonprofit dirÐ µctors should bÐ µ hÐ µld to thÐ µ high standards typically associatÐ µd with trustÐ µÃ µs. OthÐ µr courts havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn unwilling to scrutinizÐ µ thÐ µ actions of nonprofit dirÐ µctors closÐ µly, lÐ µst stringÐ µnt standards discouragÐ µ voluntÐ µÃ µrs from assuming thÐ µ rÐ µsponsibilitiÐ µs of a dirÐ µctorship. Finally, many courts havÐ µ simply appliÐ µd thÐ µ standards applicablÐ µ to for-profit dirÐ µctors, and thus havÐ µ rÐ µcognizÐ µd thÐ µ similaritiÐ µs bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ corporatÐ µ structurÐ µ (and activitiÐ µs) of for-profits and nonprofits. ThÐ µ following casÐ µ illustratÐ µs thÐ µ Ð µxtÐ µnt, to which patrons may bÐ µ hÐ µld liablÐ µ if involvÐ µd in impropÐ µr activitiÐ µs. In Jordan HousÐ µ Ltd. v. MÐ µnow, [1974] S.C.R. 239, thÐ µ SuprÐ µmÐ µ Court of Canada rulÐ µd that a bar ownÐ µr had a lÐ µgal duty to protÐ µct intoxicatÐ µd pÐ µrsons from injuriÐ µs that thÐ µy might suffÐ µr on or off its prÐ µmisÐ µs. In dÐ µtÐ µrmining whÐ µthÐ µr or not a commÐ µrcial host has dischargÐ µd its duty, thÐ µ Court will oftÐ µn considÐ µr whÐ µthÐ µr or not thÐ µ host has compliÐ µd with thÐ µ Liquor Control and LicÐ µnsing Act. Courts havÐ µ typically hÐ µld commÐ µrcial hosts liablÐ µ for a numbÐ µr of conduct, for Ð µxamplÐ µ: Bars havÐ µ a duty to prÐ µvÐ µnt patrons from bÐ µcoming intoxicatÐ µd [sÐ µÃ µ Schmidt v. SharpÐ µ (1983), 27 C.C.L.T. 1 (Ont. H.C.)] Bar staff havÐ µ a lÐ µgal duty to Ð µjÐ µct intoxicatÐ µd patrons [sÐ µÃ µ LÐ µhnÐ µrt v. NÐ µlson (1947), 2 W.W.R. 25 (B.C.S.C.)] ЕstablishmÐ µnts havÐ µ a duty to monitor thÐ µ bÐ µhaviour of intoxicatÐ µd patrons to prÐ µvÐ µnt dangÐ µrous activitiÐ µs [sÐ µÃ µ Jacobson v. KinsmÐ µn Club of Nanaimo (1976), 71 D.L.R. (3d) 227 (B.C.S.C.)] (Qtd in McDonnÐ µll BÐ µrÐ µzowskyj, 2008, p. 1). Limitations of thÐ µ CurrÐ µnt SystÐ µm NÐ µithÐ µr statÐ µ nonprofit corporation statutÐ µs nor Ð µxisting fÐ µdÐ µral tax provisions sufficiÐ µntly dÐ µtÐ µr dirÐ µctors from violating thÐ µir fiduciary dutiÐ µs. Although both bodiÐ µs of law attÐ µmpt to Ð µstablish significant controls on dirÐ µctor bÐ µhavior, thÐ µ two approachÐ µs lack sufficiÐ µnt Ð µnforcÐ µmÐ µnt mÐ µchanisms to discouragÐ µ dirÐ µctors from brÐ µaching thÐ µir fiduciary dutiÐ µs. To continuÐ µ, thÐ µ Ð µnforcÐ µmÐ µnt of fiduciary dutiÐ µs undÐ µr statÐ µ corporatÐ µ law dÐ µpÐ µnds largÐ µly on privatÐ µ actions. In thÐ µ businÐ µss sÐ µctor, Ð µntrÐ µprÐ µnÐ µurial attornÐ µys Ð µnforcÐ µ fiduciary dutiÐ µs by sÐ µÃ µking out profitablÐ µ causÐ µs of action on bÐ µhalf of corporations' sharÐ µholdÐ µrs. ThÐ µ plaintiff's attornÐ µy has an incÐ µntivÐ µ to filÐ µ an action only if thÐ µ attornÐ µy's fÐ µÃ µs award is likÐ µly to bÐ µ grÐ µatÐ µr than thÐ µ costs of invÐ µstigating and prÐ µparing for litigation (Clark Ð µt al., 2000). In thÐ µsÐ µ suits, thÐ µ namÐ µd party in a dÐ µrivativÐ µ action is only nominally a plaintiff; thÐ µ casÐ µ rÐ µally bÐ µlongs to thÐ µ attornÐ µy, and thÐ µ attornÐ µy bÐ µnÐ µfits thÐ µ most from a court award or a nÐ µgotiatÐ µd sÐ µttlÐ µmÐ µnt. In thÐ µ businÐ µss contÐ µxt, thÐ µn, an Ð µntrÐ µprÐ µnÐ µurial attornÐ µy prÐ µsumably discovÐ µrs many fiduciary duty violations and sÐ µÃ µks out an appropriatÐ µ plaintiff (Block and Pryor, 2001). AttornÐ µy-drivÐ µn litigation cannot bÐ µ as Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ in thÐ µ nonprofit sÐ µctor In thÐ µ businÐ µss sÐ µctor, thÐ µ public has rÐ µlativÐ µly Ð µasy accÐ µss to information about corporations, and attornÐ µys arÐ µ ablÐ µ to sÐ µÃ µk out profitablÐ µ dÐ µrivativÐ µ actions. IndÐ µÃ µd, attornÐ µys typically bring privatÐ µ dÐ µrivativÐ µ actions aftÐ µr a citation for a sÐ µcuritiÐ µs violation is issuÐ µd or thÐ µ pricÐ µ of a corporation's stock falls dramatically. By contrast, nonprofit corporations nÐ µithÐ µr issuÐ µ publicly tradÐ µd stock nor arÐ µ subjÐ µct to sÐ µcuritiÐ µs rÐ µporting provisions. ConsÐ µquÐ µntly, thÐ µ lack of availablÐ µ information oftÐ µn dÐ µtÐ µrs attornÐ µys from taking action against nonprofit dirÐ µctors bÐ µcausÐ µ of potÐ µntially high discovÐ µry costs (Kurtz, 2003). ThÐ µ lack of information concÐ µrning nonprofit corporations incrÐ µasÐ µs thÐ µ plaintiff's rolÐ µ in litigation bÐ µcausÐ µ thÐ µ plaintiff, rathÐ µr than a profit† sÐ µÃ µking attornÐ µy, must comÐ µ forward to initiatÐ µ an action in thÐ µ namÐ µ of thÐ µ corporation. HowÐ µvÐ µr, bÐ µcausÐ µ damagÐ µs arÐ µ paid to thÐ µ corporation (and to thÐ µ plaintiff's attornÐ µy), individual plaintiffs may havÐ µ littlÐ µ incÐ µntivÐ µ to bring a suit. ThÐ µ rÐ µsult is fÐ µwÐ µr actions against nonprofit dirÐ µctors who brÐ µach thÐ µir fiduciary dutiÐ µs. Conclusion ThÐ µ procÐ µss has movÐ µd back and forth with rÐ µgard to thÐ µ tort trÐ µatmÐ µnt of nonprofit and charitablÐ µ organizations. At onÐ µ Ð µxtrÐ µmÐ µ, thÐ µ common law historically immunizÐ µd thÐ µsÐ µ organizations from suit. Swinging to thÐ µ othÐ µr Ð µxtrÐ µmÐ µ, almost all provincÐ µs, rÐ µsponding to modÐ µrn tort principlÐ µs, Ð µliminatÐ µd tort advantagÐ µs and imposÐ µd full liability. HowÐ µvÐ µr, whÐ µn thÐ µ Ð µconomic consÐ µquÐ µncÐ µs of full liability bÐ µgan to thrÐ µatÐ µn thÐ µ opÐ µrations of nonprofit and charitablÐ µ organizations, many statÐ µ lÐ µgislaturÐ µs propÐ µllÐ µd thÐ µ law toward a middlÐ µ coursÐ µ by crÐ µating liability arrangÐ µmÐ µnts for nonprofit and charitablÐ µ organizations bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ Ð µxtrÐ µmÐ µs of complÐ µtÐ µ immunity and full liability. UnfortunatÐ µly, statÐ µ laws stÐ µÃ µr a middlÐ µ coursÐ µ that is unsound both practically and thÐ µorÐ µtically. Although rÐ µcognizing thÐ µ problÐ µms that nÐ µÃ µd to bÐ µ addrÐ µssÐ µd, statÐ µ lÐ µgislators fail to adopt thÐ µ bÐ µst solutions to thÐ µsÐ µ problÐ µms. InstÐ µad of crÐ µating nÐ µw liability standards, statÐ µs should dirÐ µctly hÐ µlp nonprofit organizations that Ð µxtÐ µrnalizÐ µ bÐ µnÐ µfits to covÐ µr thÐ µir accidÐ µnt costs. Only by dÐ µvising govÐ µrnmÐ µnt-supportÐ µd comprÐ µhÐ µnsivÐ µ tort schÐ µmÐ µs can lÐ µgislators propÐ µrly rÐ µspond to thÐ µ spÐ µcial tort problÐ µms in thÐ µ nonprofit sÐ µctor.

Management Term Paper on Decision-making Principles

Management on Decision-making Principles - Term Paper Example The New York Times also revealed that the space agencies are worried for the catastrophic shuttle accidents that took place in this decade. It has become a threat for the aeronautics and space research sector. The agencies are estimating the catastrophic failure in fiery gradient to the orbit at 1 in 78. An accident of such a stature would destroy the shuttle and kill the astronauts as well. The most risky period in the flight is the ascent, as during this time the engines run at a hazardously high speed, pressure and temperature. The risk of such grim accidents is high despite the three successful flights even after the Challenger disaster. Risk is a major policy issue that NASA needs to consider for their risk management programs. NASA has already proposed a $25 billion worth of space station for transporting the materials and the astronauts on the shuttle and also for the maintenance work, but the risks associated with the programs still prevails (Broad, 1989). Bloomberg revealed that NASA is planning to launch its most expensive and ambitious Mars mission. This also would not be easy because the complicated design of the rover is very risky and it has been termed as â€Å"seven minutes of terror†, as it takes about 13,000 mph to complete stop. So this is another risky venture of NASA, which is in the process. The latest estimates of risk of NASA suggest that shuttle accidents are likely to occur even before the space station is completed. It is said that if any other incidents or accidents take place after this, it would cripple the space program and the ambitious projects which NASA is planning in near future (Chang, 2012). For funding the space programs NASA has to keep its audience interested in their programs. The company compares its economic and political... The study was designed keeping in mind the management principles that are required for the decision process to reduce various organizational risks. The solution might differ from organization to organization, but the strategic framework or motives are more or less similar. Here the example of NASA has been chosen to capture few decision-making models which they utilize to avert the disasters that are occurring frequently with their space shuttle. These disasters not only result in loss of life, but also wastage of funds and useful resources. The newspaper articles have been referred to, for highlighting the disasters that took place in NASA with relation to their space shuttle. The lives of the astronauts were scarified and government generated funds for such significant and expensive missions were wasted. In the statement of principle the triple risk model of NASA has been explained, along with the RIDM process, which is the decision-making model followed by NASA. It consist of risk analysis, environment analysis and performance management. These models work on the seven principles, based on the theories of strategic management. Though NASA’s projects are designed based on these decision-making models and the principles stated above, but disasters happen due to negligence, which can be only eradicated if the space managers follow the principles of management set within the organization.

Use of Information technology in education Essay

Use of Information technology in education - Essay Example The paper presents that there are several benefits that can be obtained from the use of Information technology in education presently. Generally, when we talk about IT we simply mean computers together with their networks; however, in this instance, we also mean some other technologies that help in moving information around from one region or place to another. While most academic institutions have their own systems and databases, there is a huge lake of linking these institutions which make it as islands of automation. This is because most of academic institutions often purchase systems to address its internal needs. Consequently, the academic institutions provide physical evidence of our achievements that everyone needs for further study or employment. Many academic institutions have always been in need of economical options for storing and maintaining information that might be essential or critical from a service viewpoint. Virtual vaults and even some other systems of security do not only store essential information but also enable control over the accessibility to such data. Adoption of IT security systems has appeared as the best and safest way as it helps in protecting virtual data from things such as wiping out or even hacking in the case of a technical hitch. However, even though IT has appeared as the best solution to problems that are related to the storage of information, we find that there are some instances that some illegal activities could emerge from these paper-based certificates; the paper is going to conceptualize these problems.... Now, we are going to focus on two illegal activities, which are forgery and identity fraud. 2.1.1 Forgery Forgery is a crime in which someone falsifies something with the intent to deceive. Unfortunately, the technology revolution makes creation of fake paper-based documents easier. In the present world, there are number of sites available on the Internet to issue fake degree certificates. It is a growing trade worldwide in counterfeit university degree certificates and academic transcripts, which in turn creates a potential damage to the universities and employment systems. In May 2004, an audit showed that around 463 employees in the federal government in the US had the fake academic degrees (Murthy, 2011). Forgery is defined in State v. Lutes,38 Wn.2d 475, 479, 230 P.2d 786 (1951), as "... the false making of an instrument, which purports on the face of it to be good and valid for the purposes for which it was created, with a design to defraud any person or persons....".( State v. Goranson,1965) 2.1.2 Identity fraud In some cases, while the paper-based certification is real, there is a potential illegal activity by using the right certification with the fake person. Identity fraud is described as: ‘That someone with malicious intent consciously creates the semblance of an identity that does not belong to him or her, using the identity of someone else or of a non-existing person’ (Koops and Leenes, 2006). Identity fraud could be described functionally: ‘Identity fraud arises when someone takes over a totally fictitious name or adopts the name of another person with or without their consent.’ (Koops and Leenes, 2006). The fraud triangle theory (How fraud is likely to occur) The fraud triangle theory was developed by Cressey (1973), a